A diet that is high in saturated fat reduces the expression of SIRT2 in the rat hippocampus 90 , whereas a diet that is high in omega-3 fatty acids has the opposite effect 2. Although the mechanisms that are involved in the regulation of SIRT2 by dietary factors require further investigation, the fact that energy metabolism is involved in the modulation of SIRT2 as with BDNF can provide a link for the influence of dietary factors on long-term genomic stability.
Interestingly, a recent study in humans examined the association between SIRT1 homologous to the rat Sirt2 gene gene polymorphisms and cognition In this study, 1, inhabitants of Leiden in the Netherlands who were at least 85 years old were genotyped for 5 SIRT1 polymorphisms during a period of 4. Those who were homozygous for one of the polymorphisms that affected the SIRT1 promoter region showed better preservation on all measurements of cognitive function than the others.
Diet, exercise and other aspects of our daily interaction with the environment have the potential to alter our brain health and mental function. We now know that particular nutrients influence cognition by acting on molecular systems or cellular processes that are vital for maintaining cognitive function. This raises the exciting possibility that dietary manipulations are a viable strategy for enhancing cognitive abilities and protecting the brain from damage, promoting repair and counteracting the effects of aging.
Emerging research indicates that the effects of diet on the brain are integrated with the actions of other lifestyle modalities, such as exercise see BOX 2 and sleep , The combined action of particular diets and exercise on the activation of molecular systems that are involved in synaptic plasticity has strong implications for public health and the design of therapeutic interventions.
Owing to the encouraging results of clinical and preclinical studies that showed the beneficial effects of foods on the brain, the topic has attracted substantial media attention. As discussed, several dietary components have been found to have positive effects on cognition; however, caution is required, as a balanced diet is still the stepping-stone for any dietary supplementation.
By the same token, popular dietary prescriptions that might help to reduce weight do not necessarily benefit the physiology of the body or the mind. Brain networks that are associated with the control of feeding are intimately associated with those that are involved in processing emotions, reward and cognition.
A better understanding of how these networks interact will probably produce fundamental information for the development of strategies to reduce food addiction and obesity, a major social and economic burden in Western society. It is encouraging that modern psychiatry has started to appraise the implementation of some of these concepts for the treatment of various mental disorders. The fact that dietary factors and other aspects of lifestyle have an effect on a long-term timescale contributes to an under-estimation of their importance for public health.
Accordingly, the slow and imperceptible cognitive decay that characterizes normal aging is within the range-of-action of brain foods, such that successful aging is an achievable goal for dietary therapies.
The capacity of diet to modulate cognitive abilities might have even longer-term implications in light of recent studies that imply that nutritional effects might be transmitted over generations by influencing epigenetic events. Research indicating that an excessive intake of calories might negate the positive effects of certain diets suggests that there is an undefined line between abundance of foods and neural health.
This raises the concern of whether industrialized societies are consuming a balanced diet that takes into consideration appropriate numbers of calories as well as appropriate nutrients and adequate levels of exercise. Many practical questions regarding the design of diets to specifically improve brain function, such as type, frequency and amount of nutrients that constitute healthy brain food, remain to be answered, but we are beginning to uncover the basic principles that are involved in the actions of foods on the brain.
Incorporating this knowledge into the design of novel treatments could be vital to combating mental diseases and neurological weaknesses. In the elaboration of this article, I greatly benefited from inspirational discussions with G. Cole, I. Cook, R. Edgerton, T. Jones and D. I would also like to thank A. She and S. Kim for valuable editorial assistance. I am thankful to the reviewers for their constructive feedback, and to the National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke NS for funding support.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Nat Rev Neurosci. Author manuscript; available in PMC Jan Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Copyright notice. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Nat Rev Neurosci. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article.
Abstract It has long been suspected that the relative abundance of specific nutrients can affect cognitive processes and emotions.
Box 1Feeding as an adaptive mechanism for the development of cognitive skills. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Effects of feeding on cognition Neural circuits that are involved in feeding behaviour show precise coordination with brain centres that modulate energy homeostasis and cognitive function.
Internal signals and cognition The influence of visceral signals on mental function has been appreciated since ancient times, and to this day lifestyle factors, such as diet and exercise, are used as part of therapies to reduce depression, schizophrenia and bipolar disorders.
Effects of vagal nerve stimulation on cognition Vagal afferents from the gastrointestinal tract are critical for monitoring various aspects of digestion, such as the release of enzymes and food absorption. Gut hormones associated with cognition In addition to the capacity of the gut to directly stimulate molecular systems that are associated with synaptic plasticity and learning, several gut hormones or peptides, such as leptin , ghrelin , glucagon-like peptide 1 GLP1 and insulin have been found to influence emotions and cognitive processes FIG.
From energy metabolism to cognition The brain consumes an immense amount of energy relative to the rest of the body. Figure 2. Energy homeostasis and cognition Diet and exercise can affect mitochondrial energy production, which is important for maintaining neuronal excitability and synaptic function.
Figure 3. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids can affect synaptic plasticity and cognition The omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid DHA , which humans mostly attain from dietary fish, can affect synaptic function and cognitive abilities by providing plasma membrane fluidity at synaptic regions.
Effects of nutrients on cognition Several dietary components have been identified as having effects on cognitive abilities TABLE 1. Table 1 Select nutrients that affect cognitive function. Vitamin B12 is not available from plant products Vitamin D Important for preserving cognition in the elderly Fish liver, fatty fish, mushrooms, fortified products, milk, soy milk, cereal grains Vitamin E Amelioration of cognitive impairment after brain trauma in rodents ; reduces cognitive decay in the elderly Asparagus, avocado, nuts, peanuts, olives, red palm oil, seeds, spinach, vegetable oils, wheatgerm Choline Reduction of seizure-induced memory impairment in rodents ; a review of the literature reveals evidence for a causal relationship between dietary choline and cognition in humans and rats Egg yolks, soy beef, chicken, veal, turkey liver, lettuce Combination of vitamins C, E, carotene Antioxidant vitamin intake delays cognitive decline in the elderly Vitamin C: citrus fruits, several plants and vegetables, calf and beef liver.
Vitamin E: see above Calcium, zinc, selenium High serum calcium is associated with faster cognitive decline in the elderly ; reduction of zinc in diet helps to reduce cognitive decay in the elderly ; lifelong low selenium level associated with lower cognitive function in humans Calcium: milk, coral. Zinc: oysters, a small amount in beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, sunflower seeds. Box 2Additive effects of diet and exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition.
Caloric intake and cognition Caloric restriction Altering the caloric content of the diet is a potential means by which to affect cognitive capacity. Antioxidant foods The brain is highly susceptible to oxidative damage because of its high metabolic load and its abundance of oxidizable material, such as the poly-unsaturated fatty acids that form the plasma membranes of neural cells.
Diet and epigenetics A number of innovative studies are pointing to the exciting possibility that the effects of diet on mental health can be transmitted across generations.
Conclusions and future directions Diet, exercise and other aspects of our daily interaction with the environment have the potential to alter our brain health and mental function. Acknowledgments In the elaboration of this article, I greatly benefited from inspirational discussions with G. References 1. Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function?
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Ruth Morley , Ruth Morley. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. Public Health Nutrition. Breast feeding and cognitive development at age 1 and 5 years. AIM To examine whether duration of breast feeding has any effect on a child's cognitive or motor development in a population with favourable environmental conditions and a high prevalence of breast … Expand.
Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure, and obesity. Diet in infancy and development outcome. Long-chain fatty acids and early visual and cognitive development of preterm infants. European journal of clinical nutrition. The Bacon Chow study: maternal nutritional supplementation and infant behavioral development. Child development. The effect of maternal nutritional supplementation during pregnancy and lactation on the mental and motor development of infants was studied in a rural population in Taiwan.
Women were randomly … Expand. Pediatric Research. A randomised multicentre study of human milk versus formula and later development in preterm infants. Nutrition research reviews. Infant cerebral cortex phospholipid fatty-acid composition and diet.
The Lancet. It has not been established whether nutrition in early infancy affects subsequent neurodevelopment and function.
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